Figures and tables are indicated by f and t following the page number.
ad hoc interpreting, 51
administrators, 3, 11, 41, 261, 290, 291, 294, 296, 302
on deaf children capabilities, 352
interpreting background, lack of, 250
perceptions on interpreters’ status, 11, 336, 339–340, 342–343, 343f
role overload for, 345
undermining authority, 55
American Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf, 352–353
American School for the Deaf (ASD), 309
American Sign Language. See ASL (American Sign Language)
American Sociological Association Code of Ethics, 342
Americans With Disabilities Act, 73
Angelelli, C. V., 177
Antia, S., 269
Antonini, R., 51
ASL (American Sign Language), 5, 19, 38, 68, 71, 82
deficiency of, 41
direct instruction in, 23–28, 165
as language of pedagogy, 318
See also sign language interpreters work: negative thought patterns effects on
ASL interpretation: constructed meaning in English to, 8, 175–188
collection of interpretations, 179–180
different meaning construction, 177
interpreters as second language learners, 178
Langacker’s Construal Framework, 8, 176–177, 187
linguistic features from cognitive linguistic perspective, 176–177
mineralogical metaphor, 175–176
omission process, 184
source text (st) selection, 179, 180, 184, 187
use of true and happen, 182–183
ASL interpretation
easier to access, 94
preferring, 85
transliteration vs., 72, 83–84, 87–88, 101
ASL: myths debunking, 11, 308–332
“academic ASL,” 310
academic language concept for, 310–311
challenges in academic concepts interpretation, 321–322
colloquial settings vs. academic settings, 316–317
constant changes of, 327
contenting language functions, 311–316
in the academic context, 310–316
knowledge assessment and concepts learning usage, 325–326
L2 ASL development limitations, 318
as a language and a language of instruction, 308–309
language registers usage, 310–311
literacy development, 308
majority culture within Deaf communities myth, 319–320
mislabelling ASL Stories/poems, 325
nonmanual markers usage, 322–323
sign language affordability, 309
standardized for academic vocabularies, 327–331
uses linguistic features and discourse structures, 323–325
using english word order, 318–319
ASL–English interpreters, 131, 149, 153
preparation methods of, 153–154
Association of Visual Language Interpreters Of Canada (AVLIC), 154
Baer, Anne Marie, 310
Bakhtin, M. M., 135
Bamber, M. R., 193
Barnard, Frederick A. P., 309
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), 316
bilingual education, 5, 47–52, 63–65, 152, 170
bilingual/bicultural interpreting team, 34–35
bilingualism, 61
Black Deaf community, 319
Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC), 319
Blue and Buff (Newspaper), 309
Board of Education v. Rowley Case (1982), 336–337
Bontempo, K., 193
Borrero, N. E., 51
Campbell Collaboration, 2
Cawthon, S., 269
Cemy, B. E., 34
certificate maintenance program, 229, 230
Certificate of Interpretation (CI), 69
Certificate of Transliteration (CT), 69
child of deaf adults (Coda), 179
classroom interpreter, role of, 31
classroom interpreting, 31, 32
Code of Professional Conduct (CPC), 141, 142, 277
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), 316
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), 193, 194–195, 197
cognitive linguistics, 176
coherence, 35
collaboration
as interdependent relationship, 268
See also Interpreters: collaboration in K–12 education
Colomer, S. E., 55
comprehension, 82, 83, 88–90, 90–92, 149–150
as first stage of interpreting and translating, 150
lack of, teacher and student educational discourse, 149
and preference, interaction of, 94
consecutive interpreting, 39
contextualization, 216, 218–220
Continuing Professional Development (CPD), 229
contract interpreters, 125
Cook, L., 268
Coyoca, A. M., 59
Crafter, S., 53
Crucet, Jennine Capó, 44
Davino, D.
Inverted Triangles Of Responsibility Metaphor, 292–293, 292f
Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH)
interpreter and DHH department members, 279, 280
See also signed language interpreters: educational placement role
Deaf children
chief target language of schooling, 308
classroom interpretation services for, 7
cognitive development, 150
Deaf children rate in United States, 356
educating approach, 308
language learning, 151
literacy development, 11
special education laws, 352–355
See also ASL: Myths debunking
Deaf community
language attitudes in, 76
language variation among, 75
with atypical language, 77
See also emergent signers
Deaf Extralinguistic Knowledge (Delk), 33
Deaf Interpreter Institute, 33
Deaf interpreters
as a platform interpreter, 39
as an audience interpreter, 39
benefits of using a certified, 5
in mainstream classroom, 37
outside of the classroom, 38–40
stakeholders reports on, 40–41
value of certified, 4–5, 31–42
See also Deaf/hearing interpreting team
Deaf refugee and immigrant students: interpreters supporting strategies for, 9, 210–225
contextualizing information, 216, 218–220
decision-making process, 211, 212, 215, 223, 269
delayed access to and acquisition of language, 213
difficulties is social interactions, 213, 214
facilitating students’ acclimation, 215
improve student outcomes, 224
language abilities, 210
language deprivation and student outcomes, 213–214
limitation, 222
modifying interpreter language use, 215–216
research on educational interpreters, 211–212
supporting acclimation to the school system, 220–221
supporting cultural acclimation to the United States, 221–222, 223
using highly visual and gestural communication, 216–217
using visual aids to support language, 217–218
Deaf signers
language abilities, 70
linguistic diversity, 75
“new signers,” 72
Deaf students
accessing academic lectures, 72
accommodations for, 117
and classroom interpreter communication, 31
choice of accommodations, 73
classroom interpreters’ relations, 3–4
exposed to ASL, 74
FAPE right, violation of, 339
IEP and curriculum goals, 165
interpreters’ role description, 295
lack of access to primary home language, 245–246
language deprivation, 41, 213–214
linguistic competencies, 32
Mediated Education Outcomes And Impacts on, 4–6
Responsibility Actor for Education, 343–344
Suffer Social and Cognitive Deficits, 262
Deaf Worldview, 31, 32, 40, 42
Deaf/hearing interpreting team, 34, 36–37, 39, 40–41
native-level interpreting team, 39
need for, 38
using ongoing experience, 38
Deafblind, 40
decision-making, 211, 212, 215, 223, 269
Del Valle, S., 48
Department of Access Services (DAS) (Rochester Institute of Technology), 9, 136, 238
Department of Education, 346
Department of Justice’s Office of Civil Rights, 56
Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles, 309
distance interpreting, 3
Docan-Morgan, T., 134
Drake, S., 267
Du Plessis, T., 52
dysfluent signers, 96
Education For All Handicapped Children Act, 336–337, 353, 354
Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment (EIPA), 4, 19, 112, 118, 152, 154, 262, 363–364
amount of information, 21
score of, 19
skill levels, 23
educational interpreter, work of, 119–126
educational agent work, 125–126
entextualized life histories reproduction, 119–121, 126
forks in the road, 122
as staff and freelance, 121–122, 125–126
educational interpreter: communication considerations and relational dialectical tensions, 7, 131–144
adjust language abilities and usage, 133
being personable versus personal, 139, 144
classroom dynamics, 134
distance versus closeness dialectic, 135, 137–138
Freedom to be independent versus freedom to be dependent dialectic, 135, 140–141, 144
“machine” metaphor, 132
as “nonpersons,” 132
“Presentation of Self,” 132–133, 233, 234, 237, 259
pressure causing tension, 134
relational dialectics theory, 134–136, 144
research experiment methods, 136–137
resource person for Deaf students, 141–142
separating “friendliness time” and “work time,” 142–143
taking cues from students, 139–140
teacher–student relationships, 134, 137
technical role in hearing-Deaf communication, 132
working between two languages, 131
educational interpreter(s)
aim of, 111
allies to diverse Deaf communities, 320
as second language learners, 178
IEP meetings participation invitation, 361–363
rely on, 61
state standards for, 28
educational interpreters: facilitating communication vs. facilitating education, 10, 245–63
access to mainstream classrooms, 245–246
activities, duties, and responsibilities, 248–250t
“distribution of responsibilities,” 246, 247
future research, 263
interpreters-teachers collaboration, 262
interpreting status, 252–3, 253f, 254f, 255t, 263
“interpreting” interval, 252–255
“Inverted Triangles of Responsibility,” 246, 247, 292
limitations, 263
models of job description, 259, 262
“parallel interpreting,” 260–261
primary role of interpreting, 246, 251, 255
quantitative analysis, 252–255
roles and responsibilities definitions, 250–251
roles of educational interpreters, 246–250, 258–260
systems thinking, 259
video recordings and coding, 251–252
Educational Interpreting Certificate Project (EICP), 152–153
educational interpreting
effectiveness of, 12
institutional ethnography of, 114–118
Educational Interpreting: How It Can Succeed (Winston), 1
Educational placement. See Signed language interpreters: educational placement role
Eipa. See Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment (EIPA)
ELAN (linguistic software), 180, 252
ELL plaintiffs, 49
Elliott, A., 267
communication preferences, 75
definition of, 68
effective interpretation for, 77
english-dominant bilinguals, 70
features under investigation, 79t
first language acquisition, 73
interpreters facing challenges, 68
Emmorey, K., 151
Endrew F. V. Douglas County School District Case (2017), 338, 342
English (language)
in academic contexts, 49
as pedagogy language, 308
using English word order, 318–319
See also ASL interpretation: constructed meaning in English to
English Language Learners (ELLs), 44, 45, 52
academic opportunities for, 48
“English word order,” 98, 318–319
English-based signing, 71, 76, 96
Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), 56
extralinguistic knowledge (Elk), 31
face-to-face communication, 235–236, 278
facilitating communication vs. facilitating education. see educational interpreters: facilitating communication vs. facilitating education
Fitzmaurice, S. B., 151
Foster, S., 72
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), 296, 336, 337, 339, 342, 354
freelance interpreters, 121–122, 125–126
Friend, M., 268
Gallaudet Interpreting Services (GIS), 74
Gallaudet Research Institute, 19
Gallaudet University, 78
Institutional Review Board, 77
García, ofelia, 52
Gee, J. P., 310
Giangreco, M., 268
“Presentation of Self,” 132–133, 233, 234, 237, 259
Google Sheets, 156
Goswell, D., 150
graduate teaching assistants (GTAs), 135, 136, 137
Gárate, M., 310
Hall, M. L., 35
Hamrick, M., 293
Hanson, W., 59
Hofstadter, 175
IDEA. See Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea)
IEP. See Individualized Educational Program (IEP)
Ijalba, E., 49
immigrant students. See Deaf refugee and immigrant students: interpreters supporting strategies for
Individualized Educational Program (IEP), 6, 7, 9, 32, 46, 52, 111, 113, 126–127, 164, 177, 178, 195, 266, 338, 342, 346, 354
Deaf signers’ curriculum goals, 165
forks in the road, 122
IEP meetings satisfaction level, 57
interpreters’ exclusion from IEP team, 11, 336, 340, 342, 346, 347
on interpreters’ work, 119–126
local education agency (Lea), 117
as mediators of mediated education, 338–9
meetings participation invitation for interpreters, 361–363
national level policies, implementation of, 57
noncompliance, 57
qualify for special education services, 56
reviewing, 161
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea), 12, 19, 56, 115–116, 245, 336, 355, 365–366
activation, 126
passed, 353
principles of, 353
significant parts of, 354
institutional ethnography (IE), 6, 114–118
Internal Revenue Service (IRS), 121, 126
interpretations, differences in. See ASL interpretation: Constructed meaning in English to
direct versus, 21
interpreter preparation programs (IPPs), 286
interpreter training programs (ITPs), 22
Interpreter(s)
as part of educational team, 56
availability of qualified and trained, 58
“backdoor” policies, 212
blaming for cross-language communication, 57–8
code choice of, 71
demand for, 212
interpreter–teacher conversations, 36
lack of clarity about role, 211–212
multiple roles, 10
variation creating tool, 82
working with emergent signers, 74
interpreters in educational instructional settings (IEIS), 359
interpreters in K–12 settings
interpreter-mediated interaction, 112, 115, 117–118
interpreter–participants, 118
interpreting as a system, 112–114
lack of entry-level skills, 112
national certification, 112
See also sociological organization of K–12 educational settings
interpreters’ role, misunderstanding of, 11, 336–347
in educational settings, 339–341
exclusion from IEP team, 11, 336, 340, 342, 346, 347
interpreters’ status, 11, 336, 339–340, 342–343, 343f
lack of agreement on status, 11–12
in mediated education, 336–342
negative role conflict, 12, 336, 340–341, 345, 346
responsibility actor for Deaf students’ education, 343–344, 344f
role ambiguity of interpreters’ status, 12, 336, 341, 342–343, 343f, 345, 346
role ambiguity on responsibility actor for Deaf students’ education, 343–344, 344f
interpreters: collaboration in K–12 education, 10, 266–281
collaboration as an organizational process, 267
collaboration, definition of, 267, 268
common situations and challenges, 270
communication breakdowns, 271, 275–276
considering social behavior and friendliness, 277–278
discrepancy in perception, 274
face-to-face communication, 278
general levels of collaboration, 267–268
interpreter’s role characterization, 271, 272, 274–275
interpreter-appropriate clothing, 277
interpreters and oeps collaboration reframing, 279
interpreters as “communication
Lack Of Support From TOD and DHH department members, 279, 280
professional collaboration, 268
rapport building and dispute resolution, 267, 270–271, 276–279
reliance on interpreters, 272, 273
rely on oeps, 281
spaces versus space-sharing and autonomy, 268–269
student-info sourcing, 272–273, 340
interpreters: online professional development, 9, 229–238
continuing professional development (cpd)
“earning ceus” approach, 229, 230
final face-to-face meeting for review, 235–236
“presentation of self,” 132–133, 233, 234, 237, 259
range of interpreting assignments, 236–237
represent self-reflection, 236, 238
interpreters: preparation strategies usage, 7, 147–167
activating interpreter’s mind, 159
applying active preparation and deliberate practice strategies, 163
attending IEP meeting, 163
classroom audit of interpretability, 163–164
classroom discourse, 147, 148, 149, 163–164, 263
consecutive and simultaneous interpreting, 160
creating collaborative signals with the teacher, 162
critical thinking and engagement, 150
data analysis and findings, 156–164
deaf and nondeaf student’s relationships, 162, 165
factors affecting K–12 interpreting, 150–152
implications for educators, 166
implications for interpreters, 166
lack of understanding of teacher discourse, 147–148, 150, 164
language of teaching and engagement, 157–159
mental preparation, 147
mind mapping, visualizing, and brainstorming, 159–160
preparation strategies, 153–154
relationship building, 161–163
reviewing the curriculum guides, 159
specialized interpreter training programs, 152–153
teacher discourse, 148–150, 157t
teacher–interpreter relationship, 148, 161–162
think aloud protocol (TAP), 150, 160
using conscious omissions strategies, 154, 160–161
video recording the interpretation for review, 162–162
See also role-space theory
interpreters: realistic role metaphor for, 11, 285–302
bilingual–bicultural metaphor, 288
communication facilitator metaphor, 288, 89–90, 291
helper metaphor, 288
interpreter preparation programs (IPPs), 286
“Inverted Triangles of Responsibility” metaphor, 246, 247, 292–293, 292f
isolation factors contribution, 294–295
lack of clarity and disagreement on role metaphor, 296
machine or conduit metaphor, 274–275, 288–289
mediated education framing from interpreting field, 288–290
mediated education framing from within the education system, 290–296
metaphors evolution, 288
noninterpreting duties, 294
Partners In Education (role metaphor), 11, 297–302, 298f
quasi-teaching metaphor, 291, 295, 296
role ambiguity, 285, 286–287, 296
role ambiguity, contributing factors to, 287–288
role conflict, contributing factors to, 287–288
understanding interpreters’ role, 292–294
interpreting
average processing time, 34
for emergent signers at gallaudet, 74
translation and, 45
versus other tasks, 10
intervention studies, 147
applying knowledge and strategies, 156
reported strategies, 155
self-paced webinar and group conversations, 155–156
See Also interpreters: preparation strategies usage
Inverted Triangles of Responsibility metaphor, 292–293, 292f
Johnson, L., 210
K–12 settings
factors affecting interpreting, 150–152
interpreter skill on education outcomes, 4, 19–28
sociological organization of, 6, 111–127
specialized interpreter training programs, 152–153
teacher discourse, 148–150, 157t
teaming in, 36
value of certified deaf interpreters in, 4–5, 31–42
See also Deaf refugee and immigrant students: interpreters strategies for; interpreters in K–12 settings; interpreters: collaboration in K–12 education; interpreters: preparation strategies usage; sociological organization of K–12 educational settings
Kannapell, B., 70
Karasek, R. A., 193
Langacker, R., 176–177, 185, 187
Construal Framework, 8, 176–177, 187
Langer, E. C., 266, 268, 271, 273
language access, 60
guidelines, 48
title vi requirements for, 56
“language brokering,” 35, 50–52
bilingual students as language brokers, 54
ethnographic studies of, 51
forbidding use of student language brokers, 53
“language deficiency,” 49
definition, 72
emergent signers, 73
language disorders, 52
language learning classrooms, 58
translanguaging tasks, 60
implementation strategies, 50
language proficiency, 56
language rights, 49
language standardization, 327, 329
Language, Culture, and Education: Challenges of Diversity in the United States (García), 52
Lau V Nichols Case (1974), 49
Lawson, H. R., 293
Le Ton Beau De Marot (Hofstadter), 175
least restrictive environment (LRE), 336, 339, 342
Lee, J.S., 59, 132, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 259
brokering across languages, 59
need for multiple points of contact, 60
policy-level decisions, 60
LEP (limited English proficient), 45, 56–57, 62
communication between school system and, 46
community educational settings, 46
See Also LEP students
Livingston, S., 71
Llewellyn-Jones, P., 132, 133, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 259
Lo, L., 58
LRE. See least restrictive environment (LRE)
MacDonald, C., 268
“mainstream” education, 3, 117, 210
See also signed language interpreters: educational placement role
Manually Coded English (MCE) system, 19, 258
Marschark, M., 2, 31–32, 34, 71, 72
McCray, C. L., 293
McLeod, J., 151
“Mediated education,” 112, 115, 117–118, 147, 336–342, 356–358
effectiveness of, 364
framing from interpreting field, 288–290
framing from within the education system, 290–296
outcomes and impacts on deaf students, 4–6
mediated interactional communication spaces (MICS), 4
Merton, R. K., 287
misconceptions (in ASL interpretation). See ASL: Myths debunking
Monikowski, C., 151
Montiel-Overall, P., 268
Morales, A., 59
Muir-Cochrane, E., 2
My Time Among the Whites: Notes from an Unfinished Education (Crucet), 44
National Association of Educational Interpreters (NAIE), 359, 365
National Association of Interpreters in Education, 152
National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers (NCIEC), 33, 178
National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID), 101
Native-level interpreting team, 39, 41
native-user approach, 4–5, 31–42
bilingual/bicultural interpreting team, 34–35
negative thought patterns. See sign language interpreters’ work: negative thought patterns effects on
Nelson, Jackson, 153
New York School for the Deaf (NYSD), 309
Nicodemus, B., 8, 149, 151, 153, 165, 203
non-English-speakers, 44
facilitating language access, 45
nonprofessional interpreting, 51, 61
NVIVO (qualitative data analysis software), 215, 342
OEPs (other educational professionals). See Interpreters: Collaboration in K–12 education
online professional development. See Interpreters: online professional development
“oral ASL,” 98
Orellana, M. F., 59
Pagliaro, C., 327
paraprofessionals, 40
parent–teacher conferences, 53–56
Partners in Education (role metaphor), 11, 297–302, 298f
advocating role, 301
assessment of efficacy, 299
assisting role, 300
translating role, 299
PDES. See professional development endorsement system (PDES)
Pidgin Signed English (PSE), 19
Plata, M., 61
Postsecondary setting, interpreters in. See interpreters: online professional development
preparation strategies. See interpreters: preparation strategies usage
“presentation of self,” 132–133, 233, 234, 237, 259
professional development endorsement system (PDES), 152, 167
Professional Guidelines For Interpreting In Educational Settings, 152
professionalism, 268, 271, 276–277
“Public Law (PL) 94-142,” 115, 245, 336–337, 355
refugees. See Deaf Refugee and immigrant students: interpreters supporting strategies for
Registry of the Interpreters for the Deaf (RID), 69, 118, 154, 179, 230, 262, 359
Code of Ethics, 232
professional development system, 229
Rehabilitation Act (1975), 73
relational dialectical tensions. See educational interpreter: communication considerations and relational dialectical tensions
research
challenges, 4
design, 27
experiment methods, 23–28, 136–137
lack of coordination, 3
multitude of terms, 3
references, 2
resurgence of interest in, 58
RID. See Registry of the Interpreters for the Deaf (RID)
Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), 70, 230, 359
role metaphor. See Interpreters: realistic role metaphor for
role-space theory, 9, 230, 231–234, 235–236, 238, 259
decision-making hierarchy, 259–60, 260f
from role to role-space, 231–234, 285, 286
negative role conflict, 12, 336, 340–341, 345, 346
role ambiguity of interpreters’ status, 12, 336, 341, 342–343, 343f, 345, 346
role ambiguity, 285, 286–288, 296, 343–344, 344f
Rooy, Van, 52
Roy, C. B., 286
Russell, D., 147, 150, 151, 159
Seiberlich, A., 2
self-talk training, 8
sign language interpreters work: negative thought patterns effects on, 193–204
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), 193, 194–195, 197
Cognitive Load Theory and interpreters, 194–195
demand-control schema, 193, 259, 269
frequency and prevalence, 195, 204
and IEP, 202
individual’s perception of self-worth, 193–194
physiological responses, 200
resistance to new interpreting experiences, 201
unwillingness to accept feedback, 201
sign language interpreters
bimodal aspect of work, 151
See also interpreters: preparation strategies usage
sign language interpreting services (SLIS), 151–152
Sign Language Structure (Stokoe), 309
sign multilingualism, 320
signed language interpreters: educational placement role, 12, 352–366
administrative structure, lack of, 364
Deaf students and educational interpreting in united states, 355–358
demographics, 359–361, 360–361t
future research, 365
IEP meetings and educational placements, 354, 358
IEP meetings participation invitation, 361–363
Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), 354
interpreters in “related services” category, 355
least restrictive environment (LRE), 336, 339, 342, 353–354
special education laws and deaf education, 352–358
students’ Individualized Educational Plan making actor, 355
Theory of Mind, development of, 357
See Also Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (Idea)
“Signing English,” 98
Signing Exact English (SEE), 318
Simultaneous Communication (Sim-Com), 99
simultaneous interpreting, 53, 58
challenges of, 150
Slade, B., 114
SLPS. See Speech-language pathologists (SLPS)
Smith, A., 151
sociological organization of K–12 educational settings, 6, 111–127
cultural transmission, 112
educational interpreting, 111–114
feature of, 112
institutional ethnography of, 114–118
institutional relations, 111
interpreting as a system, 112–114
ruling relations, 114–115, 127
social relations in classroom, 111, 127
See also educational interpreter, work of; Individualized Educational Program (IEP); interpreters in K–12 settings
South Africa language policy, 52
special education services, 56, 57, 211, 352
speech-language pathologists (SLPS), 267, 273, 274, 280
Spencer, P. E., 2
spoken language interpreters (U.S. educational contexts), 5, 44–62
credential, 46
examining the role of, 47
inclusion of professional, 61
language policies, 48, 50, 52, 53
legal and regulatory frameworks, 47–50
parent–teacher conferences, 53–56
policy-level decisions, 60
provision of, 48
scholarly traditions, 50
scholarship on, 52
See Also Individualized Educational Program (IEP)
spoken language interpreting, 45–52
Stauffer, L., 70
Stokoe, William, 309
Stuckless, E. R., 358
student-info sourcing, 272–273, 340
teacher education programs, 148, 165
teacher of the deaf (TOD), 10, 38, 267, 272, 343
lack of support to interpreters, 279, 280
perceptions on interpreters’ status, 11, 336, 339–340, 342–3, 343f
preparation programs, 340
Theory of Mind, 357
think aloud protocol (TAP), 150, 160
traditional interpreter training, 149
translation, 150
interpreters translating role, 299
and interpreting, 45
pedagogical translation, 59
sight-translation, 36
transliteration, 68
certification system, 69
comprehension levels, 71
effectiveness of, 70
for better comprehension, 95
preferring, 86
term, 98
transitioning from, 75
vs. ASL interpretation, 83–84, 87–88, 101
Tsui, A. B. M., 134
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 45
U.S. Constitution and Civil Rights Act (1964), 49
U.S. District Court, 337
U.S. educational policy, 48–49
U.S. Supreme Court, 49, 336, 337, 338
United Kingdom Language Policy, 53
United States (U.S.)
Deaf children rate, 356
interpreters supporting cultural acclimation to, 221–222, 223
special education laws for Deaf students, 352–355
See also spoken language interpreters (U.S. educational contexts)
University of Alberta, 148
University of Free State Language Policy, 52
University of Northern Colorado (UNC), 153
Velasco, P., 49
Viera, J., 70
Wadensjö, C., 131
“waiting room chat,” 69–70, 98
“welcome folders,” 125
Wiggins, G., 230
Winston, B., 147, 150, 151, 163, 166
Winston, E. A., 69, 70, 290, 294, 297
Witter-Merithew, A., 269
Wolfe, J. A., 366
Xinchao, L., 151
Yarger, C. C., 294