American Sign Language Literature Series: Research and Development

Samuel J. Supalla and Benjamin J. Bahan
(Abridged Version for Proceedings)

The notion of an American Sign Language (ASL) Literature Series was first raised back in 1987 in a smoke-filled coffee house in Berkeley, Calif. It began with two storytellers, a publisher and some others discussing the nature of storytelling. This discussion led to the question of ASL literature, that is, whether ASL literature existed. One storyteller asked the other the crucial question of whether literature must be written to be recognized, sparking a debate among everyone in the group. Although ASL clearly lacked a conventional writing system, the conclusion from the debate ruled that literature can be either written or oral based. In this view, we cannot overlook the fact that ASL has its own oral-based literature. A total of three years research and development have now resulted in a product to be distributed in the winter of 1992.

The two storytellers nationally renowned for their literary works who raised the initial question of ASL literature are Sam Supalla and Ben Bahan. They are also the authors of this article. The former has since completed his doctorate and is an assistant professor and director of the Sign Language/Deaf Studies program at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The latter has begun his dissertation on ASL literature and is now coordinating the Deaf Studies program at Boston University. The publisher of DawnSignPress, Joe Dannis, has since achieved nationwide recognition for his unique product, Signing Naturally (Lentz, Mikos, & Smith, 1989; Smith, Lentz, & Mikos, 1988), the first curriculum of its kind on ASL instruction distributed to colleges and universities across the country (see Smith, 1988, for further discussion). It is DawnSignPress that has financed the ASL Literature Series research and development project directed by both Supalla and Bahan in a collaborative effort. The ASL Literature Series product is based on the videotaped version of ASL literary works involving various genres, and it is subject to formal study by students, both deaf and hearing, at high school and post-secondary levels.

The literary study is made possible through the availability of video technology and with formal research on ASL literature. A student videotext along with a workbook and a manual for instructors have been developed to be used both in and out of the classroom. Both Supalla and Bahan represent a unique combination of professional storytelling and scholarly backgrounds—both vital components to the success of this pioneering work. They have also each contributed one literary piece (e.g., in the form of a narrative) to the Series. It is anticipated that the two narratives will help establish standards and serve as a starting point for future contributions to the Series from other accomplished Signers.¹ Supalla and Bahan stress that they do not “own” any of the oral composition of ASL literature; the sense of “ownership” rather belongs to the Deaf community. However, Supalla and Bahan do retain the authorship role over the instructor’s manual and student workbook. This publication is made possible through formal research conducted on the ASL literary works involved (e.g., discourse/literary analysis). For future additions to the Series, the process of “screening and selection” will be left to the literary artists of the Series, including Supalla and Bahan, as well as future participating artists.

The narratives of Supalla and Bahan are full-length stories, 22 and 28 minutes long, respectively. These stories have recently been given a formal title in English; although they are affectionately remembered by ASL titles, as well. They are glossed according to Lentz, Mikos, and Smith (1989) as follows:

1.DEAF FACTORY WORK + AGENT (Supalla)

2.DCL “bird beak” /DCL “eagle beak” (Bahan)

For the purpose of this article and the upcoming ASL Literature Series, the stories have been assigned their English titles as follows: “For a Decent Living” is the first story, and “Bird of a Different Feather” is the second. These two stories are fictional and were originally composed by the Signers themselves in the 1980s (1986 for “For a Decent Living” and 1983 for “Bird of a Different Feather”). Both stories are based on the Deaf experience. For example, in “For a Decent Living,” the protagonist is a deaf boy on a journey to find his Deaf identity. It involves a series of struggles first breaking away from his hearing family, then on to a conflict with the Deaf community who mistakes him for a peddler, and then on to survival in a factory where he is the first and only deaf worker. This protagonist continually faces the dilemma of proving himself (e.g., that he is not dependent on hearing parents), to the Deaf community (e.g., that he is not “lazy” like peddlers), and to business and industry (e.g., that deaf people can work). These events are reflective of experiences that deaf children born to hearing parents share and endure as they become adults themselves. The setting of the story is the 1940s (war time), supposedly the turning point for many Deaf people in terms of occupation and opportunities to better themselves. The story involves a great deal of realism. The literary value of “For a Decent Living” lies in both enjoyment and understanding. In terms of literature, Perrine (1974, p. 3) states that it can “furnish such understanding and do so effectively—that the depiction of imagined experiences can provide authentic insights.” In this case, “For a Decent Living” reflects the Deaf experience and merits formal study.

According to both Supalla and Bahan, professional ASL storytelling appears to be a more recent trend. This may be attributed to the fact that, in the last 25 years, ASL has flourished as a language in the area of arts. Frishberg (1988) points out that much of ASL literature was originally translated (e.g., from English to ASL), but more recently we are seeing a trend toward composition of narrative, poetry, and theater within ASL. This is part of a movement taking place recognizing ASL as a true language; as well as from the increased demand for and appreciation of non-translated ASL literature. As a result, more deaf Signers, poets, authors, and playwrights “are composing from impulses within the Deaf cultural tradition” (Frishberg, 1988, p. 154). Supalla and Bahan also note that their audiences are often large (up to 500) and made up roughly of one-half deaf and one-half hearing people. In some instances, the audience is predominantly hearing, and there is no voice interpreting provided. This coincides with the fact that there is now an increasing number of hearing people learning and using ASL as a second/foreign language.

Setting a new trend, California, for example, has an estimated 10,000 students enrolled in sign language courses each year (Smith, 1988). A number of states across the country have adopted resolutions recognizing ASL as a foreign language, and some states have officially mandated that ASL meets the high school foreign language requirements (i.e., California, Michigan, Illinois, and New York). The same is true for a number of colleges and universities that have accepted ASL in fulfillment of their foreign language requirements (Selover, 1988). However, there is still much resistance to the notion of ASL serving as a foreign language for hearing students, and the stumbling block to greater acceptance lies in the literature component of ASL. Chapin (1988) may be correct in stating that one of the three major educational purposes of a foreign language requirement is the need of exposing students to a new and different mode of aesthetic expression and that “ASL is a particularly apt subject of study in this respect at present” (p. 112). However, there is a serious lack of attention in present ASL courses on the literary traditions of the Deaf community, and the major area needing improvement is ASL literature (Frishberg, 1988).

Deaf Studies, now a popular concept, has become an undergraduate program at several major universities nationwide (i.e., Boston University, California State University at Northridge, and University of Arizona). A special task force has also been reportedly set up to form a new department of American Sign Language and Deaf Studies at Gallaudet University where students enrolled in its courses will be overwhelmingly deaf themselves. ASL is also being seriously considered for acceptance as the language of instruction for students in school and programs serving deaf students nationwide. Lane (1988), for example, argues for the incorporation of ASL and Deaf culture into a bilingual/bicultural approach to deaf education. If this trend continues, Deaf Studies will no longer be limited to serving primarily hearing students, but would extend to serving a majority of deaf students as well. Classes in artistic expression through ASL are essential to any Deaf Studies curriculum and to “… further serve to enlighten and empower the deaf student” (Selover, 1988, p. 205). Finally, further understanding of ASL literature is crucial for the issues related to teaching English as a second language (ESL) for deaf students. One area that can be explored is the influence of oral strategies in deaf children’s signing and writing (Lane, 1990; Wilcox, 1988).

One way or another, ASL literature appears to be a vital component of ASL/Deaf Studies/ESL curriculums serving hearing and deaf students. More importantly, both Supalla and Bahan (along with others who have performed at local and national levels) represent the growing availability of ASL literature. However, live performances have their limitations for several reasons. The performers themselves cannot be present in every class, nor are they readily available at all times. Moreover, a performer cannot be expected to make stops or pace himself slower in a performance for the sake of study. However, with much effort being spent videotaping various Deaf storytellers and poets, students often do not have any systematic approach to studying the ASL literary work recorded. Moreover, the instructor may not be able to use the videotape format effectively, that is, not knowing the correct places to stop in the videotape for study in front of the class, and so forth. Recall that the main purpose of the extensive research and development of the ASL Literature Series is to make ASL literary works available for study, and with our efforts thus far, it appears that this goal has been achieved.

At this point in time, the ASL Literature Series product is designed specifically for hearing students learning ASL as a foreign language. These students are expected to undergo the standard four quarters/semesters of an ASL sequence at colleges and universities nationwide. The two stories mentioned earlier are targeted for students studying ASL literature at the fourth quarter/semester and thus allow the ASL Literature Series to complement any ASL curriculum. It is important to note that the ASL Literature Series will continue to be developed to serve ASL students at all levels. The ASL Literature Series, once fully developed, can also be used in a course specifically designed for studying ASL literature. The ASL Literature Series will undergo necessary modifications to serve the deaf student population effectively at both high school and post-secondary levels. Finally, with more research and development still to come, the ASL Literature Series is expected to include a “children’s literature” component as well. This new addition to the Series is crucial for serving young deaf children (e.g., to facilitate their overall literacy development and for their exposure to the rich oral traditions of the Deaf community).

In developing the ASL Literature Series, recording the literary work was the first step for both “For a Decent Living” and “Bird of a Different Feather.” Videotaping appears to be the least obtrusive approach to recording the Signers. However, a videotaped recording provides a single rendition of the narratives, thus providing students with access to only one version for study. This is especially relevant concerning the orality of the ASL narratives involved. Edwards and Sienkewicz (1991), for example, have pointed out that the role of the audience influencing oral performances cannot be overlooked. In fact, oral narratives do vary from one performance to another, depending on the interaction of the peformer and the audience. It is as if “… there is the close bond which exists within the community of the oral artist, a bond which allows unspoken communication and understanding of the community” (p. 67). The student studying “For a Decent Living” and “Bird of a Different Feather” should be well aware of the fact that only one version is subject to study. However, the need, as described earlier, for studying ASL literature outweighs the limitations involved in recording ASL literary works.

Another important consideration during the taping of the ASL Literature Series was in establishing a set of rules for videotaping to help preserve the oral nature of ASL literature. For example, the Signer does not gaze into the camera, but, rather, gazes at a small live audience away from the camera. Of course, the Signer can occasionally gaze at the camera, keeping in mind that the camera is only a part of the audience. Therefore, a “bond” is created between the Signer and the audience, and the students studying the ASL literary work are expected to feel like a part of the audience. Unfortunately, in most ASL literary works recorded up to now, the Signer is “forced” to gaze directly into the camera, and the consequences are damaging. In addition, for this video production, a special set was built in the subtle fashion of a stage, as part of the effort to create a “stage” atmosphere for the Signer and the videotape viewer. Finally, an interview with the Signer is videotaped in a “backstage” setting, covering his storytelling background and the composition of his story.

The videotaped rendition of “For a Decent Living” and “Bird of a Different Feather” has undergone extensive editing. The editing process calls for both stories to be shown on three different video cassettes. One video cassette is designed for collection purposes, whereas the other two are to be used for study (i.e., one in the classroom for the instructors use and the other outside the classroom for the student’s use). These three video cassettes make up the first set of the ASL Literature Series as follows:

1.Collector’s Edition

2.Instructor’s Copy

3.Student’s Copy

The Collector’s Edition includes both “For a Decent Living” and “Bird of a Feather” shown in full. The Instructor’s Copy and Student’s Copy also include both stories, but with the stories broken down into parts. As necessary for study, the videotaped stories have been further edited at three or four different story-structure levels, depending on the story involved. “For a Decent Living” allows for three levels (i.e., chapter, topic unit, and strophe), whereas “Bird of a Different Feather” allows for four (i.e., part, chapter, topic unit, and strophe). The second story is longer and requires more structural breakdown. The ASL literary work subject to structural breakdown through video editing enables students to study one unit of varying levels at a time. For example, at the chapter level of “For a Decent Living,” the student is able to study each of the six chapters involved (2–5 minutes each). Within each chapter, there are 2–5 topic units which allow students to study smaller segments. The same is true for the strophe level (2–6 strophes per topic unit), which allows students to study an even smaller segment within the topic unit. The “part” level (or the largest unit of study) is available only in “Bird of a Different Feather” and provides two parts (with 4–5 chapters each) for study.

The Student’s Copy includes a complete structural breakdown as described above for both stories, whereas there is only one level of structural breakdown for the Instructor’s Copy (e.g., chapters). The instructor will show and discuss the story in class by each chapter, and whichever chapter is subject to study (e.g., for the week), students will rely on their own version for more study out of the classroom. The Collector’s Edition version is reserved for the end of study with the stories shown in full and for the student’s personal collection. The videotaped interview with the Signers are added to the Instructor’s Copy, and this segment will be shown in the class and subject to discussion.

In the Student’s Copy, each unit at all levels (i.e., from part to strophe) in both stories is assigned a title in English to provide the student with an effective guide for study. For example, “For a Decent Living” is the main title of one story, and its six chapters are titled as follows:

“For a Decent Living”

Chapter1: Living on the Farm

2: Moving to the City

3: Visiting the Deaf Club

4: Getting a Job

5: The Accident

6: The Second Life

English title assignment also occurs for both topic unit and strophe levels of “For a Decent Living.” There are 17 topic units and 66 strophes in total. For example, in the first chapter, “Living on the Farm,” there are two topic units as follows:

“Living on the Farm”

Topic Unit1: Farm Family

2: Incident in the Barn

Finally, at the strophe level within the first topic unit, “Farm Family,” there are four strophes as follows:

“Farm Family”

Strophe1: Farmland

2: Boy

3: Family Quarrel

4: Leaving the Scene

The story structure outlined above was developed through formal discourse analysis. Further discussion of this linguistic approach to ASL narratives will be in Bahan and Supalla (currently being written). The discourse analysis results were crucial for guiding the editing of both the Instructor’s Copy and the Student’s Copy and the development of the student workbook. The student is expected to be able to study the videotaped story in units of varying levels as dictated by the workbook. For example, with “For a Decent Living,” the student first views the chapter, “Living on the Farm” in class through the Instructor’s Copy (with no breaks in between). In the Student’s Copy, this chapter-level unit is shown in both strophe and topic unit segments. The student then studies strophes in sequence starting with “Farmland” and ending with “Leaving the Scene.” This sequence of strophes occurs within the first topic unit, “Farm Family.” When this topic unit ends, there will be a signal in the videotape to indicate to the student where the second topic unit, “Incident in the Barn,” begins. The student will be able to study the first topic unit before going on to the second topic unit. When the second topic unit ends, there will also be a signal to indicate the end of the first chapter and the beginning of the second chapter, “Moving to the City.” With this second and all succeeding chapters, the whole process of study is repeated. The student will also be able to study the story as a whole when the sequence of chapters ends.

At the strophe level, the student will go through the comprehension section in the workbook based on the literary approach. For example, with “Farmland” (Strophe #1), questions will be asked in the workbook relating to this setting, such as “What season is it?” and “What is the general geographical location in which the story is set?” The same is true at the topic unit level with questions asked relating to the topic unit involved. For example, with “Farm Family” (Topic Unit #1), the student will answer questions related to how many characters are involved, who they are, and what they do. The scope of these questions widens as it addresses the topic unit as a whole. Thus, comprehension involving both strophe and topic unit levels is expected to occur within each chapter throughout the story. The process of charting comprehension is left to the student; answers are in the back of the workbook.

At the end of the first chapter, “Living on the Farm,” students will be able to begin a literary analysis based on their comprehension. Questions in the workbook aim at initiating discussion on the characters, themes, and motifs of the story. For example, the student will be asked to describe one of the three characters involved and how this character relates to others. The protagonist, in this case, is described as a boy displeased with farm life and eager to escape from reality through oil painting. The father, on the other hand, has a drinking problem and is deeply discontented over the boy. The mother appears to be protective of the boy. Since the boy does not respond to his father’s verbal barrage, there is an indication that the boy is deaf. The student needs to decide whether there are enough indications in the chapter to determine that the boy is deaf and state them.

The chapter discussed above is especially relevant for understanding succeeding chapters and the story as a whole (e.g., the theme involved). The boy’s reluctance to work on the farm raises questions regarding his work ethics and ability to lead an independent life as a deaf person. “Living on the Farm” provides us with a background on the boy, and it requires succeeding chapters to refute the questions raised about him. Also, at the chapter level, each student in the class will be assigned a strophe to practice retelling for homework. The assigned retelling will then be conducted in the classroom and can be tested/evaluated by the instructor. The retelling procedure is “oral to oral,” and the student is expected to recite the strophe by imitating the Signer. Both literary analysis and retelling take place at the end of each chapter. There will be a literary analysis at the end of the story, and students will also have the opportunity to study and compare both “For a Decent Living” and “Bird of a Different Feather” based on their analysis of both.

The retelling procedure is a vital component of the ASL Literature Series. According to Brown and Cambourne (1990), the potential of the retelling procedure as a language-learning activity is great and widely untapped. In retelling an ASL story, incidental and almost unconscious learning is expected to take place. “Linguistic spillover” describes this learning process whereby there is an anticipated reappearance of certain ASL linguistic forms, structures, and concepts in students’ signed production after the retelling sessions. The retelling experience has also been described as a way to “feel out” the story according to the Signer; challenges of retelling a story are expected to be both rewarding and insightful.

The student workbook will include highlights from language use and of cultural significance and will be titled: Language Notes and Culture Notes. Language Notes will include an illustration of the signer reciting a certain segment of his work with accompanying English text for elaboration. In this way, the student will be able to appreciate certain artistic/stylistic expressions in the ASL story. For example, in Strophe #1, “Farmland” of “For a Decent Living,” the Signer has created a harmony of one sign after another through a single handshape along with rhythmic patterns through movement. Culture Notes will include English text with illustrations and pictures presented whenever necessary. For example, the first chapter, “Farm Family,” involves a deaf boy and his non-signing hearing parents. The discussion in the workbook will focus on the significance of most deaf children having hearing parents and how these children acquire ASL as a language when it is not readily available in their home environment. It is anticipated that the student will develop a greater awareness of the Deaf experience in general and an increased appreciation of the characters and events in the story.

In sum, the completion of the ASL Literature Series represents a significant leap in fostering the notion of a literature component for ASL in foreign language curriculums nationwide; and utilizes a series of innovative approaches to study ASL literature formally. Basically, the series is designed for students to use outside the classroom, while a discussion of the literary work and retelling will be conducted in the classroom under the instructor’s guidance. The student workbook is vital to the Series and stresses different domains involving comprehension, literary analysis, and understanding linguistic and cultural aspects of the two ASL stories. The manual, on the other hand, is designed to help guide the instructor on how to use the ASL Literature Series effectively through a fourth quarter/semester ASL course. The videotape remains the most important component of the Series, though. All three videocassettes will be available for the instructor and ASL programs, whereas only one videocassette (i.e., the Student’s Copy) will be available for the student. However, if the student wishes to own a videocassette with the two ASL stories intact, he may purchase the Collector’s Edition sold separately. The ASL Literature Series is presently undergoing pilot testing at selected sites nationwide before actual distribution beginning in the winter of 1992.

Acknowledgements

The writing of this article is the result of three long years of research and development, and, it is hoped, only the first of many to come in the ASL Literature Series. We acknowledge the invaluable help that our students at both the University of Arizona and Boston University have provided through independent study programs. Steve Nover and Cindy Volk, both ASL instructors, also have provided valuable insights into teaching ASL literature effectively, and the same is true for Janey Greenwald and Carla Ketelhut for their help with the literary nature of ASL narratives. Many thanks are also extended to Tina Wix and Mary Jane Pollisco who have been dedicated to helping with research on ASL literature and writing reports. Robin Supalla has contributed significantly with the copyediting of this article, and our final thanks go to Joe Dannis of DawnSignPress for all of his support in our efforts.

About the Authors

Samuel J. Supalla is an assistant professor and the director of Sign Language/Deaf Studies in the division of Special Education and Rehabilitation at the University of Arizona in Tucson. He has done extensive research on manually coded English and its impact on the language development of deaf children. His research domain ranges from theoretical aspects of signed language development and language planning and policy issues to ASL literature. Dr. Supalla is also an accomplished filmmaker and ASL storyteller.

Benjamin J. Bahan is an instructor in the graduate and undergraduate program at Boston University as well as director of the undergraduate program in Deaf Studies. He is currently working on his dissertation in applied linguistics at Boston University. A vice president of DawnSignPress, he is a master storyteller, scriptwriter, actor, author, and speaker.

References

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Edwards, V., & Sienkewicz, T. (1991). Oral cultures past and present: Rappin’ and Homer. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.

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Lane, H. (1990). Bilingual education for ASL-using children. A Deaf American Monograph, 40(1-4, Eyes, hands, voices: Communication issues among deaf people), 79–86.

Lentz, E., Mikos, K., & Smith, C. (1989). Signing naturally: Teacher’s curriculum guide level 2. Berkeley, CA: DawnSignPress.

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Smith, C, Lentz, E., & Mikos, K. (1988). Signing naturally: Teacher’s curriculum guide level 1. Berkeley, CA: DawnSignPress.

Wilcox, S. (1988). Introduction: Academic acceptance of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, 59, 101–108.

1. Signers with a capital “S” refers to literary artists who perform in ASL, and whose work involves various genres within the oral traditions of the Deaf community.